Characteristics of gases
Gases are fluids, which means they flow. They are able to flow because they are relatively far apart and therefore are able to move past each other freely. Gases also have a low density and much of the volume occupied by a gas is empty space. Another property of gases are that they are highly compressible. What this means, is you can force gas molecules to move closer together by reducing the about of volume the gas molecules have to move around. This increases the pressure because the molecules are being forced to occupy a smaller space but want to reach equilibrium with the surrounding environment. Lastly, gases completely fill a container. Gas particles are constantly moving around and do not settle, allowing a gas to expand and fill the entire volume of a container.
Pressure is the amount of force exerted per unit area of surface. The unit of force in SI units in pressure is the newton. One newton is the force that gives an acceleration of 1 m/s^2 to the object whose mass is 1 kg (1 newton = 1kg x 1 m/s^2 = 1N). The SI unit of pressure is the pascal, Pa, which is the force of one newton applied over an area of one square meter (1 Pa = 1 N/1 m^2).
According to the kinetic-molecular theory, the behavior of physical systems depends on the combined actions of the molecules constituting the system. Explained, this means that the gas particles are in consistent rapid, random motion. The theory also states that the particles of a gas are very far apart relative to their size. This idea explains the fluidity and compressibility of gases. Gas particles collide with each other and with the walls of their container. The kinetic-molecular theory states that the pressure exerted by a gas is a result of collisions of the molecules against the walls of the container. Also, the theory considers collisions of gas particles to be perfectly elastic and the total energy of the system remains constant. Gas temperature is also proportional to average kinetic energy. Heat increases the energy of random motion of a gas, but not all molecules are traveling at the same speed. As a result of multiple collisions, the molecules have a range of speeds.
The Gas Laws
Boyle's law is the law that states that for a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature, the volume of the gas increases as the pressure of the gas decreases and the volume of the gas decreases as the pressure of the gas increases. The mathematical expression for this law is PV = k, where P = The pressure exerted by the gas, V = Total volume occupied by the gas, and k is the outcome. If the temperature and the number of particles are not changes, the PV product remains the same, and the mathematical expression is P1V1 = P2V2 (numbers are subscripts).
Example: A given sample of gas occupies 500 mL at 1.25 atm. The pressure is increased to 2.25 atm, while the temperature remains the same. What is the new volume of the gas?
(1) The initial volume and pressure and the final pressure are given. Determine the final volume.
P1 = 1.25 atm V1 = 500 mL
P2 = 2.25 atm V2 = ?
(2) Place the known quantities into the correct places in the equation relating pressure and volume.
P1V1 = P2V2
(1.25 atm)(500 mL) = (2.25 atm) V2
(3) Calculate.
V2 = (1.25 atm)(500 mL) / 2.25 atm = 277.78 mL
(4) Verify your results. The pressure was almost doubled. So the new volume should be approximately one-half the initial volume. The answer is therefore reasonable.
Charles's Law is the law that states that for a fixed amount of gas at a constant pressure, the volume of the gas increases as the temperature of the gas increases and the volume of the gas decreases as the temperature of the gas decreases. This shows the direct relationship between temperature and volume. The mathematical expression for this is V/T = k, where V is the total volume occupied by the gas, T is the temperature in kelvins of the gas, and k is the outcome. IF all other conditions are kept constant, V/T will remain the same. Therefore, Charles's law can be also expressed as V1/T1 = V2/T2.
Example: A balloon inflated to 1000 mL at 24 degrees Celsius. It is immersed in a dry-ice bath at -125 degrees Celsius. What is the volume, assuming the pressure remains constant?
(1) The initial volume and temperature and the final temperature are given.
V1 = 1000 mL T1 = 24C
V2 = ? T2 = -125C
(2) Convert the temperatures from degrees Celsius to kelvins.
T1 = 24C + 273 = 294 K T2 = -125C + 273 = 148 K
V1/T1 = V2/T2
1000mL/194K = V2/148K
(3) Calculate
V2 = (1000 mL)(148 K) / 294 K = 503.40 mL
(4) Verify your results. Charles's law tells you that volume decreases as temperature decreases. The temperature decreases by about one half, and according the the calculation, so did the volume. The answer is therefore reasonable.
Gay-Lussac's law is the law that the pressure of a gas at a constant volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. The mathematical expression for this lae is P = kT, where P = Pressure exerted by the gas, k is the outcome, and T = Temperature in kelvins of the gas. The equation can be rearranged to the following form: P/T = k. At a constant volume, the following equation applies: P1/T1 = P2/T2.
Example: A aerosol can containing gas at 163 kPa and 20 degrees Celsius is heated to 59 degrees Celsius. Calculate the pressure in the heated can.
(1) The initial pressure and temperature and the final temperature are given. Determine the final pressure.
P1 = 163 kPa T1 = 20C
P2 = ? T2 = 59C
(2) Convert the temperatures from degrees Celsius to kelvins:
T1 = 20C + 273 = 293K T2 = 59C + 273 = 332K
P1/T1 = P2/T2
163 kPa/293K = P2/332K
(3) Calculate
P2 = (163 kPa)(332 K)/293 K = 184.70 kPa
(4) Verify your results. The temperature of the gas increases by about 13%, the the pressure should increase by the same proportion. The answer is therefore reasonable.
Avogardo's law is the law that states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. Avogardo's law is important in determining the formulas of chemical compounds because it allows for scientists to find the volume of 1 mol of an gas at STP.
Sunday, October 11, 2009
Main Character Analysis - The Scarlet Letter
Hester Prynne:
PHYSIOLOGY:
Sex: Female
Age: Hester is a “Young woman”. (50)
Height and Weight: “The young woman was tall, with a figure of perfect elegance on a large scale” (50)
Posture: Hester had natural and radiant beauty.“She had dark and abundant hair…[Hester] has the impressiveness belonging to a marked brow and deep black eyes” (50) However, after she was condemned by the scarlet letter, she sought not to show it. “Hester sought not to acquire anything beyond a subsistence of the plainest and most ascetic description, for herself…Her own dress was the coarsest materials and the most somber hue” (77) She was pale and wore a “formal cap that confined her hair” (182)
Clothes: Hester made rich clothing for many people of high class, and even made exquisite clothing for Pearl, however, “Her own dress was the coarsest materials and the most somber hue” (77) adorned with the Scarlet Letter.
Defects -physical and/or mental: Hester does not have any physical or mental defects per se. but she does not allow herself to experience pleasures, and most likely suffers from extreme depression. “Hester never put forward even the humblest title to share in the world’s privileges” (145)
Heredity, Ethnicity: English
SOCIOLOGY:
Class: Hester is a commoner who worked as a seamstress to provide for herself and her child.
Occupation: Hester was a skilled seamstress. “Her needlework was seen on the ruff of the Governor; Military men wore in on their scarfs, and the minister on his band…There was a frequent and characteristic demand for such labor as Hester Prynne could supply.” (76)
Education: ?
Home Life/Family: Hester Prynne has a daughter, Pearl. They live together “On the outskirts of the town…but not in close vicinity to any other habitation…[where] there was a small thatched cottage” (74)
Religion: Puritan
Standing in Community: Hester is scornfully looked down upon, and is made a living example of sin. “She will be a living sermon against sin, until the ignominious letter be engraved upon her tombstone. “ (59). Later, however, because “Hester’s nature showed itself warm and rich…many people refused to interpret the scarlet A by its original signification. They said that it meant Able; so strong was Hester Prynne, with a woman’s strength.” (146)
Political Ambitions: ?
Amusements/Hobbies/Interests: It is said in the novel that “Women derive a pleasure, incomprehensible to the other sex, from the delicate toil of a needle. To Hester Prynne it might have been a mode of expressing, and therefore soothing, the passion of her life.” (77)
PSYCHOLOGY:
Moral Standards: She believes that the scarlet letter is all-powerful (until the moment she discards in the woods while with Dimmesdale) and believes that the only way she can find righteousness is by constant penance.
Personal Ambitions:”Hester bestowed all her superfluous means in charity...She employed in making coarse garments for the poor” (77)
Frustrations: Pearl constantly gives attention to Hester’s scarlet letter and is described as fluttery and in constant movement. This makes Hester wonder whether or not Pearl is a child of the “black man”.
Temperament: Hester is not normally temperamental, but does become angry and troubled with Pearl at moments. “‘Child, what art thou?’ cried the mother”
Attitude toward Life: She believes that the world is righteous and that she must endure her sin for as long as she lives to gain salvation.
Conflicts: Hester is tormented by the scarlet letter and the community in which she lives. The scarlet letter is only a symbol, yet she readily gives it the power it needs to torment her. She also does not ask for anything from anyone (such as for Dimmesdale to also repent his sin). Pearl constantly acts in ways that torment Hester as well.
Dimmesdale:
PHYSIOLOGY:
Sex: Male
Age: Although age is not specified, he is considered young amongst the people, and could be considered to be the age of Hester
Height / Weight: ?
Posture: Throughout the novel, Dimmesdale becomes sick, often clenching onto his heart. He is looked up to and respected as being “wise beyond his years” (61), however his guilt of being Hester’s fellow adulterer causes him to become ill. He is often physically depressed due to his secret. “He looked haggard and feeble” (170)
Clothes: Dimmesdale wore clothes of a clergyman.
Defects -physical and/or mental: Dimmesdale was physically ill for much of the novel, but the cause of his illness could be perceived as a mental (or spiritual in the Puritan sense). “A bodily disease...may, after all, be a symptom of some ailment in the spiritual part.” (124)
Heredity/Ethnicity: English
SOCIOLOGY:
Class: Minister
Occupation: Reverend/Clergyman/Minister
Education: Dimmesdale “came from one of the great English universities.” (62)
Home Life/Family: For the longest duration of the novel, he becomes good friends with Chillingworth and they live together as he tries to assess Dimmesdale’s illness.
Religion: Puritan
Standing in Community: Dimmesdale is often described as a gift from heaven. “The godly youth!...The saint on earth!” (131).He is highly respected and even when he tries to confess his sin, the community “heard it all, and did but reverence him the more” (131).
Political Ambitions: ?
Amusements/Hobbies/Interests: He enjoyed talking to Chillingworth because Chillingworth had “an intellectual cultivation of no moderate depth or scope; together with a range and freedom of ideas that he would have vainly looked for among the members of his own profession.” (112) He might have liked to walk as well. Him and Chillingworth “Took long walks on the sea-shore, or in the forest” (112)
PSYCHOLOGY:
Moral Standards: Dimmesdale has high moral standards, however, he refuses to publically repent his sin, and instead does it in the confinement of his home by whipping himself.
Personal Ambitions: Although his soul is black with sin, when given the chance to leave Providence, he mutters “Lost as my own soul is, I would still do what I may for other human souls!” (178) Dimmesdale has an ambition to do what good he can to save others’ souls from becoming tainted as his is.
Frustrations: He becomes lightly frustrated when Chillingworth tries to get to the root of his illness, where he would then use earthly medicines to cure him. Dimmesdale, however, knows that no earthly medicine would cure him, and thus refuses to share his sinful secret. He is also frustrated with his own inability to publically confess and repent his sin.
Temperament: Dimmesdale becomes pale and nervous around Pearl and Hester. “The sensitive clergyman shrunk with nervous dread” (122)
Attitude toward Life: After 7 years of mental anguish and guilt, Dimmesdale seems to give up on his life and his health. Although he allows Chillingworth to try to find the source of his illness he knows that Chillingworth can do nothing, unless he has “medicine for the soul”. (124)
Conflicts: Due to Dimmesdales guilt, he physically torments himself by whipping himself. He is also in mental anguish because he wants to be free of his secretive sin, yet cannot find the strength to do so. “Had I one friend-or where it my worst enemy!-to whom, when sickened with the praises of all other men, I could daily betake myself, and be known as the vilest of all sinner, methinks my soul might keep itself alive thereby.” (173)
Chillingworth
PHYSIOLOGY:
Sex: Male
Age: Chillingworth’s age is not mentioned, however, he is most likely a few years older than Hester. It can be inferred he is much older than Hester when he says “What had I to do with youth and beauty like thine own!” (69) But can also be just a few years older by her quote“[He] could hardly be termed aged” (56)
Height / Weight: ?
Posture: One of his shoulders rose higher than the other, and he wore “a strange disarray of civilizes and savage costume” (56) He was cleanly and had good hygiene.
Clothes: He wore “a strange disarray of civilizes and savage costume” (56)
Defects : He has a physical defect, “One of [Dimmesdale’s] should rose higher than the other.” (57) Also he is throughout the novel a symbol of evil and has devoted his life to get revenge on his wife’s fellow adulterer. “The unhappy man had made the very principle of his life to consist in the pursuit and systematic exercise and revenge; and when…that evil principle was left with no further material to support it,” (232) he died.
Heredity/Ethnicity: English
SOCIOLOGY:
Class: ?
Occupation: Physician/Doctor
Education: Doctor of Physics from a German university (110);
Home Life/Family: Lives with Dimmesdale for most of the novel.
Religion: ?
Standing in Community: The community at first believed that Chilling worth was a gift from heaven, sent to cure Dimmesdale. “Heaven had wrought an absolute miracle, by transporting an eminent Doctor of Physic,, from a German university.” (110) Later, however, they believed he was the Black Man who was causing Dimmesdale even more pain and suffering.
Political Ambitions: ?
Amusements/Hobbies/Interests: He enjoyed talking philosophically with Dimmesdale, as well as experimenting with herbs and finding the root cause of illnesses.
PSYCHOLOGY:
Moral Standards: None, however, at the end of the book, he leaves a large inheritance to Hester and Pearl, leaving the reader to believe that in his last moments he come to the sense that what he became was immoral, and thus tried repent it.
Personal Ambitions: Throughout the novels entirety, Chillingworths main ambition was to find Hester’s fellow adulterer, and have his revenge.
Frustrations: He becomes frustrated that he trusted Hester to be alone at providence without committing adultery. He is also frustrated when he cannot get Dimmesdale to confess his adultery to him.
Temperament: ?
Attitude toward Life: He is miserable, but lets his misery transform into hate and revenge. For the 7 years he spent at providence he did nothing but try to expose Hester’s fellow adulterer. After Dimmesdale was exposed, he was left lifeless, with no purpose in life. “He positively withered up, shriveled away, and almost vanished from mortal sight.” (232)
Conflicts: He cannot let go of his hate and want of revenge against Dimmesdale.
PHYSIOLOGY:
Sex: Female
Age: Hester is a “Young woman”. (50)
Height and Weight: “The young woman was tall, with a figure of perfect elegance on a large scale” (50)
Posture: Hester had natural and radiant beauty.“She had dark and abundant hair…[Hester] has the impressiveness belonging to a marked brow and deep black eyes” (50) However, after she was condemned by the scarlet letter, she sought not to show it. “Hester sought not to acquire anything beyond a subsistence of the plainest and most ascetic description, for herself…Her own dress was the coarsest materials and the most somber hue” (77) She was pale and wore a “formal cap that confined her hair” (182)
Clothes: Hester made rich clothing for many people of high class, and even made exquisite clothing for Pearl, however, “Her own dress was the coarsest materials and the most somber hue” (77) adorned with the Scarlet Letter.
Defects -physical and/or mental: Hester does not have any physical or mental defects per se. but she does not allow herself to experience pleasures, and most likely suffers from extreme depression. “Hester never put forward even the humblest title to share in the world’s privileges” (145)
Heredity, Ethnicity: English
SOCIOLOGY:
Class: Hester is a commoner who worked as a seamstress to provide for herself and her child.
Occupation: Hester was a skilled seamstress. “Her needlework was seen on the ruff of the Governor; Military men wore in on their scarfs, and the minister on his band…There was a frequent and characteristic demand for such labor as Hester Prynne could supply.” (76)
Education: ?
Home Life/Family: Hester Prynne has a daughter, Pearl. They live together “On the outskirts of the town…but not in close vicinity to any other habitation…[where] there was a small thatched cottage” (74)
Religion: Puritan
Standing in Community: Hester is scornfully looked down upon, and is made a living example of sin. “She will be a living sermon against sin, until the ignominious letter be engraved upon her tombstone. “ (59). Later, however, because “Hester’s nature showed itself warm and rich…many people refused to interpret the scarlet A by its original signification. They said that it meant Able; so strong was Hester Prynne, with a woman’s strength.” (146)
Political Ambitions: ?
Amusements/Hobbies/Interests: It is said in the novel that “Women derive a pleasure, incomprehensible to the other sex, from the delicate toil of a needle. To Hester Prynne it might have been a mode of expressing, and therefore soothing, the passion of her life.” (77)
PSYCHOLOGY:
Moral Standards: She believes that the scarlet letter is all-powerful (until the moment she discards in the woods while with Dimmesdale) and believes that the only way she can find righteousness is by constant penance.
Personal Ambitions:”Hester bestowed all her superfluous means in charity...She employed in making coarse garments for the poor” (77)
Frustrations: Pearl constantly gives attention to Hester’s scarlet letter and is described as fluttery and in constant movement. This makes Hester wonder whether or not Pearl is a child of the “black man”.
Temperament: Hester is not normally temperamental, but does become angry and troubled with Pearl at moments. “‘Child, what art thou?’ cried the mother”
Attitude toward Life: She believes that the world is righteous and that she must endure her sin for as long as she lives to gain salvation.
Conflicts: Hester is tormented by the scarlet letter and the community in which she lives. The scarlet letter is only a symbol, yet she readily gives it the power it needs to torment her. She also does not ask for anything from anyone (such as for Dimmesdale to also repent his sin). Pearl constantly acts in ways that torment Hester as well.
Dimmesdale:
PHYSIOLOGY:
Sex: Male
Age: Although age is not specified, he is considered young amongst the people, and could be considered to be the age of Hester
Height / Weight: ?
Posture: Throughout the novel, Dimmesdale becomes sick, often clenching onto his heart. He is looked up to and respected as being “wise beyond his years” (61), however his guilt of being Hester’s fellow adulterer causes him to become ill. He is often physically depressed due to his secret. “He looked haggard and feeble” (170)
Clothes: Dimmesdale wore clothes of a clergyman.
Defects -physical and/or mental: Dimmesdale was physically ill for much of the novel, but the cause of his illness could be perceived as a mental (or spiritual in the Puritan sense). “A bodily disease...may, after all, be a symptom of some ailment in the spiritual part.” (124)
Heredity/Ethnicity: English
SOCIOLOGY:
Class: Minister
Occupation: Reverend/Clergyman/Minister
Education: Dimmesdale “came from one of the great English universities.” (62)
Home Life/Family: For the longest duration of the novel, he becomes good friends with Chillingworth and they live together as he tries to assess Dimmesdale’s illness.
Religion: Puritan
Standing in Community: Dimmesdale is often described as a gift from heaven. “The godly youth!...The saint on earth!” (131).He is highly respected and even when he tries to confess his sin, the community “heard it all, and did but reverence him the more” (131).
Political Ambitions: ?
Amusements/Hobbies/Interests: He enjoyed talking to Chillingworth because Chillingworth had “an intellectual cultivation of no moderate depth or scope; together with a range and freedom of ideas that he would have vainly looked for among the members of his own profession.” (112) He might have liked to walk as well. Him and Chillingworth “Took long walks on the sea-shore, or in the forest” (112)
PSYCHOLOGY:
Moral Standards: Dimmesdale has high moral standards, however, he refuses to publically repent his sin, and instead does it in the confinement of his home by whipping himself.
Personal Ambitions: Although his soul is black with sin, when given the chance to leave Providence, he mutters “Lost as my own soul is, I would still do what I may for other human souls!” (178) Dimmesdale has an ambition to do what good he can to save others’ souls from becoming tainted as his is.
Frustrations: He becomes lightly frustrated when Chillingworth tries to get to the root of his illness, where he would then use earthly medicines to cure him. Dimmesdale, however, knows that no earthly medicine would cure him, and thus refuses to share his sinful secret. He is also frustrated with his own inability to publically confess and repent his sin.
Temperament: Dimmesdale becomes pale and nervous around Pearl and Hester. “The sensitive clergyman shrunk with nervous dread” (122)
Attitude toward Life: After 7 years of mental anguish and guilt, Dimmesdale seems to give up on his life and his health. Although he allows Chillingworth to try to find the source of his illness he knows that Chillingworth can do nothing, unless he has “medicine for the soul”. (124)
Conflicts: Due to Dimmesdales guilt, he physically torments himself by whipping himself. He is also in mental anguish because he wants to be free of his secretive sin, yet cannot find the strength to do so. “Had I one friend-or where it my worst enemy!-to whom, when sickened with the praises of all other men, I could daily betake myself, and be known as the vilest of all sinner, methinks my soul might keep itself alive thereby.” (173)
Chillingworth
PHYSIOLOGY:
Sex: Male
Age: Chillingworth’s age is not mentioned, however, he is most likely a few years older than Hester. It can be inferred he is much older than Hester when he says “What had I to do with youth and beauty like thine own!” (69) But can also be just a few years older by her quote“[He] could hardly be termed aged” (56)
Height / Weight: ?
Posture: One of his shoulders rose higher than the other, and he wore “a strange disarray of civilizes and savage costume” (56) He was cleanly and had good hygiene.
Clothes: He wore “a strange disarray of civilizes and savage costume” (56)
Defects : He has a physical defect, “One of [Dimmesdale’s] should rose higher than the other.” (57) Also he is throughout the novel a symbol of evil and has devoted his life to get revenge on his wife’s fellow adulterer. “The unhappy man had made the very principle of his life to consist in the pursuit and systematic exercise and revenge; and when…that evil principle was left with no further material to support it,” (232) he died.
Heredity/Ethnicity: English
SOCIOLOGY:
Class: ?
Occupation: Physician/Doctor
Education: Doctor of Physics from a German university (110);
Home Life/Family: Lives with Dimmesdale for most of the novel.
Religion: ?
Standing in Community: The community at first believed that Chilling worth was a gift from heaven, sent to cure Dimmesdale. “Heaven had wrought an absolute miracle, by transporting an eminent Doctor of Physic,, from a German university.” (110) Later, however, they believed he was the Black Man who was causing Dimmesdale even more pain and suffering.
Political Ambitions: ?
Amusements/Hobbies/Interests: He enjoyed talking philosophically with Dimmesdale, as well as experimenting with herbs and finding the root cause of illnesses.
PSYCHOLOGY:
Moral Standards: None, however, at the end of the book, he leaves a large inheritance to Hester and Pearl, leaving the reader to believe that in his last moments he come to the sense that what he became was immoral, and thus tried repent it.
Personal Ambitions: Throughout the novels entirety, Chillingworths main ambition was to find Hester’s fellow adulterer, and have his revenge.
Frustrations: He becomes frustrated that he trusted Hester to be alone at providence without committing adultery. He is also frustrated when he cannot get Dimmesdale to confess his adultery to him.
Temperament: ?
Attitude toward Life: He is miserable, but lets his misery transform into hate and revenge. For the 7 years he spent at providence he did nothing but try to expose Hester’s fellow adulterer. After Dimmesdale was exposed, he was left lifeless, with no purpose in life. “He positively withered up, shriveled away, and almost vanished from mortal sight.” (232)
Conflicts: He cannot let go of his hate and want of revenge against Dimmesdale.
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